Stress (psychological) is used in many different contexts. However, psychological stress is not as vague and all-encompassing as most people believe it to be. Stress is not directly created by external events, but instead by the internal perceptions that cause an individual to have anxiety/negative emotions surrounding a situation, such as pressure, discomfort, etc., which they then deem “stressful”. Humans experience stress, or perceive things as threatening, when they do not believe that their resources for coping with obstacles (stimuli, people, situations, etc.) are enough for what the circumstances demand. When we think the demands being placed on us exceed our ability to cope, we then perceive stress. The feelings often associated with experiencing stress are anxiety and being overwhelmed.
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Individuals deal with perceived threats, or stress, in different ways. There are different classifications for these coping, or “defense” mechanisms, however they all are variations on the same general idea: There are good/productive ways to handle stress, and there are negative/counterproductive ways to do so. Because stress is perceived, the following mechanisms do not necessarily deal with the actual situation that is causing an individual stress. However, often they do, but they are also considered coping mechanisms if they allow the individual to better cope with the negative feelings/anxiety that they are experiencing due to the perceived stressful situation, as opposed to actually fixing the concrete obstacle causing them stress. The following mechanisms are adapted from the DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994.
These skills are what one could call as “facing the problem head on”, or at least dealing with the negative emotions experienced by stress in a constructive manner. (generally adaptive)
• Affiliation – This mechanism involves dealing with the stress by turning to one's social network for support, but an individual does not share with others in order to diffuse or avoid the responsibility.[1][2]
• Humor – Note that this does not include sarcasm. This mechanism allows the individual to step outside of the situation, in order to gain greater perspective, and also to highlight any comic aspect to be found in their stressful circumstances.[1]
• Sublimation – This defense allows an “indirect resolution of conflict with neither adverse consequences nor consequences marked by loss of pleasure.[3] Essentially, this mechanism allows the individual to channel their troubling emotions or impulses into an outlet that is socially acceptable.
• Positive Reappraisal – This is when an individual redirects their thoughts, their cognitive energy, to good things that are either occurring or have not occurred. This can lead to personal growth, self-reflection, and awareness of the power/benefits of one's efforts.[4]
Other adaptive coping mechanisms include anticipation, altruism, and self-observation.
These mechanisms cause the individual to have a diminished (or in some cases non-existent) awareness about their anxiety, threatening ideas, fears, etc., that come from being conscious of the perceived threat.
• Displacement - This is when an individual redirects their emotional feelings about one situation to another, less threatening one.[5]
• Repression – Repression occurs when an individual attempts to remove all their thoughts, feelings, and anything related to the upsetting/stressful (perceived) threat out of their awareness in order to be disconnected from the entire situation. When done long enough in a successful way, this is more than just denial.
• Reaction formation – An individual substitutes their feelings or thoughts or behavior with the exact opposite. An attempt to remove any “unacceptable thoughts” from one's consciousness by replacing them with the exact opposite.[6]
Other inhibition coping mechanisms include undoing, dissociation, denial, projection, and rationalization.
These are ways of dealing with stress in which one literally takes action, or withdraws.
• Acting out – Often viewed as counter-normative, or problematic behavior. Instead of reflecting or problem-solving, an individual takes maladaptive action.[2]
• Passive aggression – This is when an individual indirectly deals with his or her anxiety and negative thoughts/feelings stemming from their stress by acting in a hostile or resentful manner towards others. Help-Rejecting Complaining can also be included in this category.
Depending on the situation, all of these coping mechanisms may be adaptive, or maladaptive.
In terms of measuring the body's response to stress, psychologists tend to use Han Selye's general adaptation syndrome. This model is also often referred to as the classic stress response, and it revolves around the concept of homeostasis. This means that the body's response to stressors seeks to return to its equilibrium, or the normal level of stress resistance. During the alarm phase, the body begins to build up resistance to the stressor beyond normal resistance levels. The body continues building up resistance throughout the stage of resistance, until either the body's resources are depleted or the stressful stimulus is removed, leading into the exhaustion phase.
This response is designed to help humans in life or death situations, but all types of stressors can trigger this response. A stress response results in elevated physiological arousal, often associated with the release of stress hormones such as cortisol. The physiological arousal in response to stressors is designed to help the body adapt quickly in order to survive and rid itself of the stressful stimuli.[7]
This physiological stress response involves high levels of sympathetic nervous system activation, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response. The response involves pupil dilation, release of endorphins, increased heart and respiration rates, cessation of digestive processes, secretion of adrenaline, arteriole dilation, and constriction of veins. This high level of arousal is often unnecessary to adequately cope with micro-stressors and daily hassles; yet, this is the response pattern seen in humans, which often leads to health issues commonly associated with high levels of stress.[8]
As seen in the previous section, the physiological response to stress demands much of the body's energy and resources. This often has a great impact on disease and risk for disease. When the body's energy is used to respond to minor (or major) stressors, the immune system's ability to function properly is compromised. This makes the individual more susceptible to physical illnesses like the cold or flu. Stressful events, such as job changes, often result in insomnia, impaired sleeping, and health complaints.[9] Chronic stress and a lack of coping resources available or used by an individual can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as depression and anxiety (see below for further information).[10] This is particularly true regarding daily stressors. These types of stressors tend to have a more negative impact on health because they occur daily and thus require the body's physiological response to occur daily. This depletes the body's energy more quickly and usually occurs over long periods of time, especially when these microstressors cannot be avoided (i.e.- traffic on the way to work). Studies have also proven that perceived chronic stress and the hostility associated with Type A personalities are often associated with much higher risks of cardiovascular disease. This occurs because of the compromised immune system as well as the high levels of arousal in the sympathetic nervous system that occur as part of the body's physiological response to stressful events.[11] However, it is possible for individuals to exhibit hardiness—a term referring to the ability to be both chronically stressed and healthy.[12] Many psychologists are currently interested in studying the factors that allow hardy individuals to cope with stress and evade most health and illness problems associated with high levels of stress. Stress can be associated with psychological disorders such as general anxiety disorder, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. However, it is important to note that everyone experiences some level of stress, and diagnosis of stress disorders can only be performed by a licenced practitioner.
A stressor is any event, experience, or environmental stimulus that causes stress in an individual.[13] These events or experiences are perceived as threats or challenges to the individual and can be either physical or psychological. Researchers have found that stressors can make individuals more prone to both physical and psychological problems, including heart disease and anxiety.[14] Stressors are more likely to affect an individual's health when they are "chronic, highly disruptive, or perceived as uncontrollable".[14] In psychology, researchers generally classify the different types of stressors into three categories: crises/catastrophes, major life events, and daily hassles/microstressors.
This type of stressor is unforeseen and unpredictable and, as such, is completely out of the control of the individual.[14] Examples of crises and catastrophes include: devastating natural disasters , such as major floods or earthquakes , wars , etc. Though rare in occurrence, this type of stressor typically causes a great deal of stress in a person's life. A study conducted by Stanford University found that after natural disasters, those affected experienced a significant increase in stress level.[14]
Common examples of major life events include: marriage, going to college, death of a loved one, birth of a child, etc. These events can be either positive or negative. Research has found major life events are somewhat rare to be major causes of stress, due to its rare occurrences.[14] The length of time since occurrence and whether or not it is a positive or negative event are factors in whether or not it causes stress and how much stress it causes. Researchers have found that events that have occurred within the past month generally are not linked to stress or illness, while chronic events that occurred more than several months ago are linked to stress and illness.[15] Additionally, positive life events are typically not linked to stress—and if so, generally only trivial stress—while negative life events can be linked to stress and the health problems that accompany it.[14]
This category is the most commonly-occurring type of stressor in an individual's everyday life. This includes daily annoyances and minor hassles.[14] Examples include: making decisions, meeting deadlines at work or school, traffic jams, encounters with irritating personalities, etc. Often, this type of stressor includes conflicts with other people. Daily stressors, however, are different for each individual, as not everyone perceives a certain event as stressful. For example, most people find public speaking to be stressful, nevertheless, a seasoned politician most likely will not.
There are three major psychological types of conflicts that can cause stress. First, the approach-approach conflict is where a person is choosing between two equally attractive options, i.e. whether to go see a movie or to go see a concert.[14] The second type is the avoidance-avoidance conflict, where a person has to choose between two equally unattractive options, for example, to take out a second loan with unappealing terms to pay off the mortgage or to face foreclosure on one's house.[14] The third type is an approach-avoidance conflict.[14] This is where a person is forced to choose whether or not to partake in something that has both attractive and unattractive traits—such as whether or not to attend an expensive college (meaning taking out loans now, but also meaning a quality education and employment after graduation).
Stress scales are lists of life events that can contribute to illness in an individual. The most common scale is the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale, also known as the Social Readjustment Rating Scale, or SRRS.[16] Developed by psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe in 1967, the scale lists 43 events that can cause stress.
To calculate one's score, add up the number of "life change units" if an event occurred in the past year. A score of more than 300 means that individual is at risk for illness, a score between 150 and 299 means risk of illness is moderate, and a score under 150 means that individual only has a slight risk of illness.[14][16]
| Life event | Life change units |
|---|---|
| Death of a spouse | 100 |
| Divorce | 73 |
| Marital separation | 65 |
| Imprisonment | 63 |
| Death of a close family member | 63 |
| Personal injury or illness | 53 |
| Marriage | 50 |
| Dismissal from work | 47 |
| Marital reconciliation | 45 |
| Retirement | 45 |
| Change in health of family member | 44 |
| Pregnancy | 40 |
| Sexual difficulties | 39 |
| Gain a new family member | 39 |
| Business readjustment | 39 |
| Change in financial state | 38 |
| Death of a close friend | 37 |
| Change to different line of work | 36 |
| Change in frequency of arguments | 35 |
| Major mortgage | 32 |
| Foreclosure of mortgage or loan | 30 |
| Change in responsibilities at work | 29 |
| Child leaving home | 29 |
| Trouble with in-laws | 29 |
| Outstanding personal achievement | 28 |
| Spouse starts or stops work | 26 |
| Begin or end school | 26 |
| Change in living conditions | 25 |
| Revision of personal habits | 24 |
| Trouble with boss | 23 |
| Change in working hours or conditions | 20 |
| Change in residence | 20 |
| Change in schools | 20 |
| Change in recreation | 19 |
| Change in church activities | 19 |
| Change in social activities | 18 |
| Minor mortgage or loan | 17 |
| Change in sleeping habits | 16 |
| Change in number of family reunions | 15 |
| Change in eating habits | 15 |
| Vacation | 13 |
| Christmas | 12 |
| Minor violation of law | 11 |
A modified version was made for non-adults. The scale is below.[14]
| Life Event | Life Change Units |
|---|---|
| Getting married | 95 |
| Unwed pregnancy | 100 |
| Death of parent | 100 |
| Acquiring a visible deformity | 80 |
| Divorce of parents | 90 |
| Fathering an unwed pregnancy | 70 |
| Jail sentence of parent for over one year | 70 |
| Marital separation of parents | 69 |
| Death of a brother or sister | 68 |
| Change in acceptance by peers | 67 |
| Pregnancy of unwed sister | 64 |
| Discovery of being an adopted child | 63 |
| Marriage of parent to stepparent | 63 |
| Death of a close friend | 63 |
| Having a visible congenital deformity | 62 |
| Serious illness requiring hospitalization | 58 |
| Failure of a grade in school | 56 |
| Not making an extracurricular activity | 55 |
| Hospitalization of a parent | 55 |
| Jail sentence of parent for over 30 days | 53 |
| Breaking up with boyfriend or girlfriend | 53 |
| Beginning to date | 51 |
| Suspension from school | 50 |
| Becoming involved with drugs or alcohol | 50 |
| Birth of a brother or sister | 50 |
| Increase in arguments between parents | 47 |
| Loss of job by parent | 46 |
| Outstanding personal achievement | 46 |
| Change in parent's financial status | 45 |
| Accepted at college of choice | 43 |
| Being a senior in high school | 42 |
| Hospitalization of a sibling | 41 |
| Increased absence of parent from home | 38 |
| Brother or sister leaving home | 37 |
| Addition of third adult to family | 34 |
| Becoming a full fledged member of a church | 31 |
| Decrease in arguments between parents | 27 |
| Decrease in arguments with parents | 26 |
| Mother or father beginning work | 26 |
Stress, as a definition, is often used incorrectly. Stressors are events, situations, stimuli, etc. that can cause people to perceive threat, thus they experience anxiety, overwhelmed-ness, or other negative emotions. In fact it is not these events, these traumas, conversations, etc. that "stress" us out, but instead our perception of how we will be able to cope with these stimuli. (See definition of stress at top)
Physiologically, day to day/chronic stressors have a greater negative impact on individuals' health than do more acute, traumatic stressors that generally have a start and an end point (see classic stress response, above). For example, daily stressors like dealing with traffic, finishing homework assignments, etc., cause more harm on one's health in the long run than do stressors such as a death in the family, marriage, etc. (see "types of stressors" above; crisis/catastrophes v. major life events/macro stressors v. daily hassles/micro stressors.